Gōng Lì Zhǔ Yì: 功利主义 - Utilitarianism

Keywords: 功利主义 (gōng lì zhǔ yì), 边沁 (Biān qìn), 密尔 (Mì ěr), 效益主义 (xiào yì zhǔ yì), 最大幸福原则 (zuì dà xìng fú yuán zé), 实用主义 (shí yòng zhǔ yì), ethical theory, moral philosophy, consequentialism, pragmatic, self-interest, modern China, philosophy, ethics

Summary: 功利主义 (gōng lì zhǔ yì) represents one of the most influential ethical frameworks in both Western philosophy and contemporary Chinese intellectual discourse. Originally translated from the English term “utilitarianism,” this concept champions the principle that the morally correct action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number. However, within modern Chinese society, the term carries a fascinating duality: while academically it refers to a rigorous philosophical tradition founded by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, colloquially it has evolved to describe a pragmatic, results-oriented mindset that often carries pejorative undertones. In everyday Chinese conversation, calling someone “太功利” (tài gōng lì) — “too utilitarian” — suggests they are excessively transactional, prioritizing personal gain over genuine relationships or moral considerations. Understanding this term requires navigating both its scholarly precision and its social implications, making it essential vocabulary for anyone seeking to comprehend Chinese ethical debates, business culture, and interpersonal dynamics.

Core Information:

• Pinyin: gōng lì zhǔ yì
• Part of Speech: noun (名词, míng cí)
• HSK Level: Advanced (HSK 6+), primarily encountered in academic and professional contexts
• Concise Definition: An ethical theory holding that the morality of an action is determined by its contribution to overall utility (typically understood as happiness, pleasure, or the reduction of suffering); in modern Chinese usage, also describes pragmatic, self-interested behavior.

The “In a Nutshell” Concept:

Imagine you're at a massive dinner table where every dish represents a possible action. 功利主义 (gōng lì zhǔ yì) suggests you should ask not “Do I like this dish?” or “Is this dish traditional?” but rather “Which dish will make the most people at this table the happiest?” The philosophy strips away individual moral intuitions, religious commandments, and social customs, replacing them with a simple calculator: sum up the pleasure, subtract the pain, and the answer tells you what's right.

But here's where Chinese adds a layer of complexity that English doesn't quite capture. In everyday Mandarin, 功利主义 has drifted from its philosophical roots. When a Chinese person says someone is “功利” (gōng lì) — dropping the “-ism” suffix — they're not discussing Bentham or Mill. They're making a social judgment, often critical. Someone who only befriends you because you have connections, who volunteers only to pad their résumé, who helps only when camera phones are present: these people are being “功利” — calculating, transactional, interested primarily in personal gain.

This semantic split between the philosophical term and its colloquial descendant creates a rich tapestry of meaning. In academic papers, 功利主义 earns respect as a serious theoretical framework. In Weibo discussions or casual conversations, calling something “功利主义” can be a cutting social critique. Understanding this duality is essential for navigating Chinese intellectual life.

Evolution & Etymology:

The Chinese term 功利主义 emerged during the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic era as scholars sought to translate Western philosophical concepts into classical Chinese vocabulary. The characters themselves tell a story: 功 (gōng) means “achievement” or “merit,” 利 (lì) means “benefit” or “profit,” and 主义 (zhǔ yì) means “doctrine” or “-ism.” Together, they create a term that emphasizes tangible results and material benefit as the basis for moral judgment.

Early translators like Yan Fu (严复, Yán Fù) played a crucial role in introducing Western utilitarianism to Chinese audiences. Yan Fu translated Bentham's works, choosing Chinese characters that emphasized the practical, results-oriented nature of the philosophy. His choices reflected the intellectual climate of the time, when many Chinese reformers sought “practical learning” (实学, shí xué) over what they perceived as sterile classical scholarship.

During the twentieth century, 功利主义 became entangled with broader debates about modernization, Marxism, and Chinese philosophical tradition. Marxist critics often attacked utilitarianism as bourgeois ideology, while Chinese reformers debated whether its emphasis on collective welfare aligned with or contradicted Confucian concerns for social harmony. This historical layering gives the term a rich conceptual density that simpler translations miss.

In contemporary usage, the term has continued to evolve. With China's rapid economic development and the rise of a market-oriented society, “功利” as an adjective has taken on increasingly negative connotations. Scholars note that in a society experiencing rapid social change and inequality, the accusation of “being too utilitarian” often masks deeper anxieties about moral decay, the erosion of traditional values, and the overwhelming influence of material success.

The following table illuminates how 功利主义 relates to conceptually adjacent terms, highlighting subtle but important differences in nuance, emotional intensity, and typical usage contexts.

The critical distinction between 功利主义 and its cousins lies in the scope of calculation. Utilitarianism, in its philosophical sense, demands that you consider everyone's welfare equally when making moral judgments. The person practicing 功利主义 in its colloquial sense, however, often calculates only their own benefit or that of a very limited in-group. This gap between the philosophy's egalitarian aspirations and its popular usage as a term for narrow self-interest represents one of the most fascinating semantic drifts in modern Chinese.

Consider the difference: a true utilitarian, when deciding whether to lie, would weigh the consequences for all affected parties. A person labeled “功利” in colloquial Chinese might lie simply because it serves their immediate interests, without any philosophical framework justifying the action as producing the greatest good. The label has thus become shorthand for a perceived moral failure: excessive self-interest masquerading as pragmatic realism.

Where It Works (and Where It Fails):

Understanding where and how 功利主义 operates in contemporary Chinese society requires examining multiple social spheres, each with its own rules and expectations.

The Academic Sphere: Where Theory Still Matters

In university philosophy departments and ethics seminars, 功利主义 retains its status as a serious theoretical framework. Students learn to engage with the classic arguments: Bentham's hedonic calculus, Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures, Rawls's critique of utilitarian justice. In this context, discussing 功利主义 is intellectually prestigious, demonstrating familiarity with both Western philosophy and contemporary ethical debates.

However, even here, Chinese scholars often note the theory's limitations when applied to Chinese social realities. Critics argue that utilitarianism's individualistic foundations sit uneasily with Confucian emphases on relational ethics and social harmony. A truly Chinese ethical synthesis, these scholars suggest, would need to modify utilitarianism substantially to account for concepts like 仁 (rén, benevolence), 义 (yì, righteousness), and the web of obligations that define Chinese social life.

The Business World: A Double-Edged Sword

In corporate environments, the pragmatic aspects of 功利主义 thinking are widely embraced, often without the pejorative connotations found in social criticism. Chinese business culture values results, efficiency, and practical problem-solving. Phrases like “讲究实效” (jiǎng jiū shí xiào, emphasizing practical results) and “以结果为导向” (yǐ jié guǒ wéi dǎo xiàng, results-oriented) pervade workplace discourse.

However, this pragmatic orientation can easily slide into the negative associations of 功利. When business relationships become purely transactional, when employees are valued only for their immediate contribution, when “guanxi” (关系, social connections) is cultivated purely for instrumental gain, observers begin to use the language of 功利主义 to critique what they see as moral bankruptcy in corporate China.

This creates a paradoxical situation for foreign businesspeople. On one hand, demonstrating pragmatic, results-oriented thinking will earn you respect. On the other hand, appearing too obviously self-interested can destroy the trust essential for long-term business relationships. The skill lies in balancing genuine win-win orientations with the Chinese preference for relationship-based business dealings.

Social Media and Generational Dynamics: Gen-Z's Response

Chinese social media platforms like Weibo and Bilibili reveal a fascinating generational divide regarding 功利主义. Older generations, having lived through periods of intense ideological struggle, often view “功利” attitudes with particular suspicion, seeing them as evidence of moral decline from socialist ideals or traditional values.

Younger Chinese, however, sometimes push back against what they perceive as naive moralism. For Gen-Z, growing up in an intensely competitive society where university entrance exams determine life trajectories and where housing prices make traditional success metrics increasingly unattainable, “being practical” often seems like survival strategy rather than moral failing. On discussion boards, you can find vigorous debates about whether it's realistic to expect young people not to be “功利” when the system itself rewards such attitudes.

This generational tension plays out in romantic contexts as well. Complaints about “功利” attitudes in dating — where partners are evaluated primarily on income, housing, and career prospects — appear regularly in Chinese social media discourse. Younger users sometimes defend such calculations as rational given economic pressures, while older commentators lament the commercialization of relationships.

The Hidden Codes: What Goes Unsaid

Understanding 功利主义 in Chinese requires grasping several unwritten social codes that shape how the concept operates:

First, accusations of 功利 are often coded criticisms of specific behaviors rather than abstract philosophical judgments. When someone says “他太功利了” (tā tài gōng lì le, he is too utilitarian), they typically mean the person treats relationships instrumentally, helps others only when there's clear personal benefit, or makes decisions based exclusively on material considerations. The accusation is social, not just moral.

Second, the term serves as a form of moral policing in a society where direct confrontation is often avoided. Rather than saying “You're only my friend because I have connections,” a Chinese person might more subtly characterize your behavior as “功利.” This indirectness allows the criticism to be made while preserving face for both parties.

Third, self-awareness of one's own 功利 tendencies is considered a sign of moral refinement. The truly virtuous person, in the Chinese ethical imagination, should be capable of acting beyond mere calculation. Someone who recognizes their own 功利 impulses and strives to overcome them demonstrates the self-cultivation prized in Confucian thinking. The person who lacks such self-awareness, who openly embraces calculation without moral反省 (fǎn xǐng, reflection), marks themselves as morally immature.

Fourth, context determines whether 功利主义 thinking is praised or condemned. In scientific research, being “practical” about methodology and focusing on applicable results is admirable. In friendship, being “practical” about who you spend time with is socially condemned. The line between rational pragmatism and excessive功利 varies dramatically across social domains.

The following examples illustrate how 功利主义 functions across diverse contexts, from formal academic discussion to casual social commentary.

Example 1: Academic Philosophy Discussion

Sentence: 在伦理学的课堂上，教授详细讲解了功利主义的基本原理及其面临的批评。

Pinyin: Zài lúnlǐxué de kètáng shàng, jiàoshòu xiáng xì jiǎngjiě le gōnglìzhǔyì de jīběn yuánlǐ jí qí miàndé de pīpíng.

English: In the ethics classroom, the professor explained in detail the basic principles of utilitarianism and the criticisms it faces.

Deep Analysis: This example represents the term's academic usage, where it functions as a straightforward translation of the Western philosophical concept. In this context, the term is neutral, descriptive, and carries no negative connotations. The speaker is demonstrating knowledge of Western philosophy, and the discussion would likely include historical figures like Bentham and Mill alongside Chinese adaptations of the theory.

Example 2: Workplace Critique

Sentence: 他对待同事的态度太功利了，只要有利用价值的人他才会主动接近。

Pinyin: Tā duìdài tóngshì de tàidu tài gōnglì le, zhǐyào yǒu lìyòng jiàzhí de rén tā cái huì zhǔdòng jiējìn.

English: His attitude toward colleagues is too utilitarian; he only takes the initiative to approach people who have use value.

Deep Analysis: Here the adjective form 功利 (gōnglì) carries strong negative connotations. The speaker is criticizing what they perceive as instrumental treatment of colleagues — befriending people only for what they can provide. This usage reflects the Chinese workplace expectation that professional relationships should include genuine interpersonal care, not just transactional calculations. The criticism implicitly invokes Confucian values of mutual support and 社会信任 (shèhuì xìnrèn, social trust).

Example 3: Relationship Commentary

Sentence: 现在的相亲市场太功利了，大家都先看对方的收入和房产。

Pinyin: Xiànzài de xiāngqīn shìchǎng tài gōnglì le, dàjiā dōu xiān kàn duìfāng de shōurù hé fángchǎn.

English: The current matchmaking market is too utilitarian; everyone first looks at the other person's income and property.

Deep Analysis: This example illustrates the term's application to romantic relationships, a domain where Chinese society particularly values emotional connection and traditional virtues. The criticism reflects anxiety about changing social values and the perceived encroachment of materialistic calculations into intimate life. The speaker positions themselves as lamenting a loss of romantic idealism, a common theme in Chinese social commentary about modernization.

Example 4: Educational Critique

Sentence: 很多学生的学习动机太功利化，他们只在乎考试分数而不关心真正的知识。

Pinyin: Hěnduō xuéshēng de xuéxí dòngjī tài gōnglìhuà, tāmen zhǐ zàihu kǎoshì fēnshù ér bù guānxīn zhēnzhèng de zhīshí.

English: Many students' learning motivation is overly utilitarianized; they only care about exam scores and not about genuine knowledge.

Deep Analysis: Educational concerns about 功利化 (gōnglìhuà, the process of becoming utilitarian) dominate Chinese pedagogical discourse. This criticism reflects deep anxieties about the pressure-cooker nature of Chinese education, where entrance to prestigious universities determines life trajectories. The speaker yearns for a conception of education as personal cultivation rather than mere credential acquisition, echoing both Confucian ideals of learning as self-cultivation and progressive educational philosophies that emphasize intrinsic motivation.

Example 5: Media Criticism

Sentence: 这档综艺节目内容太功利，完全是为了博眼球和赚广告费。

Pinyin: Zhè dàng zōngyì jiémù nèiróng tài gōnglì, wánquán shì wèile bó yǎnqiú hé zhuàn guǎngguǎng fèi.

English: This variety show's content is too utilitarian, entirely aimed at grabbing attention and earning advertising revenue.

Deep Analysis: When applied to media products, 功利 describes content created purely for commercial success without artistic merit or social value. This criticism reflects Chinese cultural concerns about 娱乐至死 (yúlè zhì sǐ, entertainment to death) and the degradation of cultural standards. The speaker positions themselves as valuing cultural quality over mere popularity, a stance that carries significant cultural capital in Chinese intellectual discourse.

Example 6: Defensive Self-Reflection

Sentence: 我承认自己有时候确实很功利，但在这个竞争激烈的社会，不这样真的很难生存。

Pinyin: Wǒ chéngrèn zìjǐ yǒu shíhou quèshí hěn gōnglì, dàn zài zhège jìngzhēng jīliè de shèhuì, bù zhèyàng zhēn de hěn nán shēngcún.

English: I admit that I am sometimes indeed very utilitarian, but in this intensely competitive society, not being this way really makes survival difficult.

Deep Analysis: This example reveals the complex moral landscape surrounding 功利 in contemporary China. The speaker acknowledges the negative judgment attached to 功利 behavior while simultaneously defending it as necessary survival strategy. This kind of honest self-reflection often appears in personal essays and social media posts, reflecting widespread ambivalence about modern Chinese social values.

Example 7: Philosophical Debate

Sentence: 与功利主义不同，康德的义务论强调行为的动机而非结果。

Pinyin: Yǔ gōnglìzhǔyì bùtóng, Kāngdé de yìwùlùn qiángdiào xíngwéi de dòngjī ér fēi jiéguǒ.

English: Unlike utilitarianism, Kant's deontology emphasizes the motive of actions rather than their results.

Deep Analysis: This academic comparison demonstrates how 功利主义 functions in philosophical discourse, serving as a technical term that students must understand to engage with ethical theory. The juxtaposition with Kant's deontology (义务论, yìwùlùn) highlights fundamental debates in moral philosophy about whether consequences or intentions determine moral worth.

Example 8: Business Strategy

Sentence: 公司的决策应该更加功利一些，优先考虑投资回报率。

Pinyin: Gōngsī de juécè yīnggāi gèngjiā gōnglì yīxiē, yōuxiān kǎolǜ tóuzī huí bào lǜ.

English: The company's decisions should be more pragmatic, prioritizing return on investment.

Deep Analysis: In business contexts, the term's connotations shift toward the positive. Here “more pragmatic” means focusing on measurable results, which in corporate settings is typically praised. The speaker positions themselves as advocating for professional, results-oriented management practices, distinguishing this legitimate business pragmatism from the socially condemned interpersonal功利 that damages relationships.

Example 9: Social Commentary on Modernization

Sentence: 社会的功利化趋势让人与人之间的关系变得越来越淡薄。

Pinyin: Shèhuì de gōnglìhuà qūshì ràng rén yǔ rén zhījiān de guānxi biàn de yuè lái yuè dànbó.

English: The trend toward societal utilitarianization has made the relationships between people increasingly thin and superficial.

Deep Analysis: This example uses the noun form 功利化 to describe broad social transformation, reflecting Chinese intellectuals' concerns about modernization's impact on social bonds. The critique echoes European conservative and communitarian critiques of modernity, suggesting that economic development comes at the cost of genuine community and human connection.

Example 10: Academic Self-Critique

Sentence: 学术界也存在功利化倾向，学者们为了发表论文而做研究，而不是为了解决实际问题。

Pinyin: Xuéshù jiè yě cúnzài gōnglìhuà qīngxiàng, xuézhěmen wèile fābiǎo lùnwén ér zuò yánjiū, ér bùshì wèile jiějué shíjì wèntí.

English: The academic world also has utilitarianizing tendencies; scholars do research to publish papers rather than to solve actual problems.

Deep Analysis: This meta-critique demonstrates how the language of 功利 is deployed even within institutions to which pragmatic thinking might seem appropriate. The implicit standard is that scholarship should serve genuine understanding rather than mere career advancement, reflecting deep assumptions about what constitutes authentic intellectual work.

Example 11: Contrast with Traditional Values

Sentence: 儒家思想强调仁爱，而功利主义只看结果不考虑动机，这在根本上是有差异的。

Pinyin: Rújiā sīxiǎng qiángdiào rén'ài, ér gōnglìzhǔyì zhǐ kàn jiéguǒ bù kǎolǜ dòngjī, zhè zài gēnběn shàng shì yǒu chāyì de.

English: Confucian thought emphasizes benevolence, while utilitarianism only considers results and not motives; this represents a fundamental difference.

Deep Analysis: This example explicitly contrasts Western philosophical utilitarianism with traditional Chinese values, a common framing in Chinese academic discussions. The speaker positions the two systems as fundamentally incompatible, suggesting that Chinese society's uneasiness with 功利主义 reflects deeper cultural commitments to moral intention and relational care.

Example 12: Foreign Observer's Analysis

Sentence: 作为一个在中国工作多年的外国人，我观察到功利心态在商业交往中确实很普遍。

Pinyin: Zuòwéi yīgè zài Zhōngguó gōngzuò duōnián de wàiguórén, wǒ guānchá dào gōnglì xīntài zài shāngwù jiāowǎng zhōng quèshí hěn pǔbiàn.

English: As a foreigner who has worked in China for many years, I observe that the utilitarian mindset is indeed very common in business interactions.

Deep Analysis: Foreign observers' use of 功利 to describe Chinese business practices often generates controversy. Some Chinese commentators welcome such observations as accurate, while others criticize them as superficial or unfairly judgmental. The foreign observer here navigates this minefield by acknowledging the phenomenon while maintaining analytical neutrality.

Understanding where English speakers typically stumble when engaging with 功利主义 requires examining both linguistic and cultural dimensions of the term's usage.

Common Pitfall 1: Assuming Pure Philosophical Usage

Wrong: I think he's a strict utilitarian, so he'll definitely help us.

Right: I think he's very pragmatic, so he'll definitely help us.

Explanation: The English word “utilitarian” primarily evokes its philosophical meaning and sounds somewhat academic when describing someone's personality. In Chinese, the colloquial adjective 功利 has become the default way to describe pragmatic, results-oriented people in everyday contexts. Using the full philosophical term 功利主义 to describe an individual's attitude sounds overly formal and disconnected from how native speakers actually communicate. For everyday descriptions of someone's practical or self-interested attitude, use the adjective 功利 (gōnglì) or the phrase 太实际 (tài shíjì, too practical) instead.

Common Pitfall 2: Missing the Negative Connotations

Wrong: My Chinese colleague is very功利, always thinking about efficiency.

Right: My Chinese colleague is very pragmatic, always thinking about efficiency.

Explanation: When you directly transplant the Chinese term 功利 into English conversation, you lose the crucial negative connotations that the term carries in social contexts. In English, calling someone “pragmatic” or “efficient” is generally neutral or positive. In Chinese social settings, describing someone as 功利 suggests moral criticism — that they treat relationships transactionally and prioritize personal gain over genuine connection. If you want to convey a neutral sense of someone being practical, use 实际 (shíjì), 务实 (wùshí), or 实用 (shíyòng) instead. Reserve 功利 for situations where you want to convey the negative judgment.

Common Pitfall 3: Using the Term in Inappropriate Contexts

Wrong: Your donation to charity is so功利 — you're just doing it for the tax benefits.

Right: Your donation to charity seems so功利 — just calculating the benefits for yourself.

Explanation: In Chinese social discourse, using 功利 to question someone's apparently altruistic action is a serious moral accusation. The term implies that the person lacks genuine moral motivation and is merely performing goodness for instrumental reasons. While such criticisms do occur in Chinese conversation, making them requires significant social intimacy or power differential. Foreign speakers often misjudge the social weight of this accusation, deploying it too casually and causing offense. In general, be cautious about using 功利 to judge others' motivations unless you have a deep understanding of the relationship dynamics and social context.

Common Pitfall 4: Confusing Different Forms of the Term

Wrong: He has a strong 功利主义 mindset, so he only cares about profits.

Right: He has a strong 功利 mindset, so he only cares about profits.

Explanation: In colloquial Chinese, the full term 功利主义 is reserved for academic or formal contexts. When describing someone's general attitude or approach, native speakers almost always use the shorter form 功利 (gōnglì) as both noun and adjective. Using the full “-ism” term in everyday conversation sounds pedantic, as if you're giving a philosophical diagnosis rather than making a social observation. The pattern here mirrors English: we say someone is “materialistic” rather than “materialism-minded” in casual conversation.

Common Pitfall 5: Overlooking the Philosophical Term's Respectability

Wrong: 功利主义 is a pretty crude theory; it just says do whatever gives you pleasure.

Right: 功利主义, while influential, faces significant criticisms regarding individual rights and distributive justice.

Explanation: In academic contexts, dismissing 功利主义 as simplistic earns you a reputation for philosophical ignorance. The theory has sophisticated defenders and has generated centuries of rigorous debate. When engaging with Chinese academics or discussing philosophy, demonstrate familiarity with the theory's nuances: Bentham's hedonic calculus, Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures, the problems of cardinal versus ordinal utility measurement, and contemporary defenses and critiques. This intellectual seriousness earns respect; oversimplification invites condescension.

Common Pitfall 6: Neglecting Cultural Context in Usage

Wrong: In my presentation, I'll explain how功利主义 can help your company maximize profits.

Right: In my presentation, I'll explain how 实用主义 approach can help your company maximize profits.

Explanation: In business contexts, the term 实用主义 (pragmatism) often communicates the same practical orientation without the negative moral connotations. While 功利主义 can be used positively in academic business ethics discussions, in general business presentations it may trigger negative associations with pure selfishness or mercenary attitudes. If you want to convey that your approach will focus on practical results and efficiency, 实用主义 or 务实作风 (wùshí zuòfēng, pragmatic work style) communicates your meaning while avoiding potential moral criticism.

Common Pitfall 7: Misunderstanding the Relationship to Chinese Values

Wrong: Chinese people are naturally功利 because of Communist ideology.

Right: Chinese society, like all societies, contains both pragmatic and idealistic orientations; the prevalence of功利 discourse reflects ongoing cultural debates about modernization.

Explanation: Foreign observers sometimes oversimplify the relationship between Chinese culture and 功利 attitudes. While the term 功利主义 carries negative connotations in Chinese social discourse, this reflects existing moral frameworks — including Confucian, Buddhist, and socialist traditions — that value altruism, community, and moral intention alongside material success. The prevalence of criticism about 功利化 actually demonstrates that Chinese society maintains active ethical standards that transcend pure economic calculation. Reducing Chinese culture to utilitarian calculation misses the complex moral debates occurring within Chinese intellectual life.

• 实用主义 (shí yòng zhǔ yì) - Pragmatism; a philosophical approach emphasizing practical consequences as the proper test of truth and meaning. Unlike 功利主义, this term generally carries neutral or positive connotations in Chinese, describing a sensible, results-oriented approach to problem-solving.
• 利己主义 (lì jǐ zhǔ yì) - Egoism; the ethical doctrine that self-interest is the foundation of morality. More consistently negative than 功利 in its connotations, this term describes pure self-serving behavior without the philosophical sophistication of utilitarianism.
• 效益主义 (xiào yì zhǔ yì) - Efficiency/utilitarianism; an alternative academic translation of utilitarianism used primarily in philosophy departments and academic papers. This term avoids the negative colloquial associations of 功利主义.
• 享乐主义 (xiǎng lè zhǔ yì) - Hedonism; the belief that pleasure is the highest good and that avoiding pain is the proper aim of life. Related to 功利主义 through its emphasis on happiness/pleasure but focuses specifically on individual experience rather than collective utility.
• 结果论 (jié guǒ lùn) - Consequentialism; the broader ethical theory that the moral rightness of actions depends on their consequences. 功利主义 is the most prominent form of consequentialism, but the category includes other theories as well.
• 义务论 (yì wù lùn) - Deontology; the ethical theory that moral obligations are based on rules, duties, or principles rather than consequences. Associated primarily with Kantian philosophy, this represents the main alternative to 功利主义 in Western moral philosophy.
• 道德功利 (dào dé gōng lì) - Moral utility; a compound term sometimes used in Chinese business ethics to discuss appropriate utilitarian considerations in moral decision-making, distinguishing acceptable pragmatic thinking from excessive self-interest.
• 关系 (guān xi) - Relationships/social connections; the Chinese concept of personal networks that function as social capital. Discussions of 功利 frequently contrast genuine relationship cultivation with instrumental relationship exploitation.
• 面子 (miàn zi) - Face; the Chinese concept of social reputation and dignity. The tension between maintaining face (through appropriate behavior) and 功利 calculation represents a central dynamic in Chinese social interactions.
• 人情 (rén qíng) - Human feelings/social obligations; the complex Chinese concept encompassing both emotional warmth and reciprocal social duties. Actions motivated purely by 功利 calculations are criticized as lacking 人情, failing to meet social obligations with appropriate emotional investment.